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Behavioural Interventions

An important part of any behavioural intervention, and one that is often overlooked, is maximising the effectiveness of the treatment by using appropriate reinforcers and punishers.

Types of Reinforcers

• you need to use reinforcers that have been shown to be effective for that particular individual in the past
• different types of reinforcers are effective for different individuals

(1) Material reinforcers

• effective for children (e.g. candy) but they can also be effective for adults

(2) Social reinforcers

• includes a vast majority of all reinforcing events that people encounter throughout life
• sometimes these are effective because social reinforcers (e.g. person) has been previously paired with material reinforcers (e.g. candy) as in example of grandparents
• examples include praise facial expressions, nearness, contact,
• people encounter throughout life
• sometimes these are effective because social reinforcers (e.g., person) has been previously paired with material reinforcers (e.g., candy) as in example of grandparents
• examples include praise, facial expressions, nearness, contact.

(3) Activity reinforcers

• these should be preferred activities (e.g. 30 minute jog after study may not be very effect because it is not desirable)
• related to the Premack Principle: an activity or behaviour may be reinforced by the privilege to engage in another behaviour of greater baseline frequency (e.g. study can be reinforced by watching T.V.) or if study on a particular topic is less preferred such as statistics but study on psychotherapy is much preferred, the statistics can be reinforced by psychotherapy study
• frequency of a behaviour is some index of how it is valued, but remember that frequency may also be related to the availability of the behaviour e.g. watching T.V. for a poor child

(4) Token reinforcers

• tokens are simply objects with redeemable value e.g. money, gambling chips, stars, points system
• tokens are cashed in for material or social reinforcers

(5) Covert reinforcers

• the thoughts and self-evaluations that an individual may engage in
• generally it involves alterations in the degree to which individuals evaluate desired behaviours positively

(1) Extrinsic vs. intrinsic

• extrinsic is external in nature e.g. praise
• intrinsic is internal in nature e.g. pride/ self-approval or self-professed enjoyment of the behaviour

(2) Positive and negative reinforcement

• +ve is occurrence of a reinforcing event
• -ve is termination of an aversive event

(3) Self-reinforcement

• involves not only the administration of reinforcers or punishers but also the evaluation of one's own behaviour to determine if it has reached the standard or has failed
• thus you need to be specific about what the desired behaviour is so you can reinforce it

(1) Immediate vs. delayed reinforcement

• the more immediate the reinforcer then the more effective it will be
• same also applies for punishment

(2) Delay of reinforcement in behaviour sequences

(3) Verbal classification of behaviour and the contingent relationship between behaviour and reinforcer

• often this is termed shaping so you give reinforcers for performing some aspects of the behaviour sequence
• the effectiveness of a reinforcer may be increased by clearly stating the contingency

(4) Incentive value and the power of a reinforcer

• people differ in their preference for a particular reinforcer e.g. praise good for one but not for another

Shaping new behaviours

• involves reinforcing behaviours that bear some relation to the desired behaviour

(1) Continuous reinforcement

• every appropriate response is followed by reinforcement
• good for acquiring behaviours but also gives rapid extinction if a few contingent reinforcers are removed

(2) Intermittent reinforcement

• not every response is followed by a reinforcer
• these can have various effects on the response

(3) Ratio schedules

• in fixed ratio schedules every nth response is reinforced
• in a variable ratio schedule every nth response is reinforced on average

(4) Interval schedules

• are concerned with the time between reinforcement
• these can also be fixed or variable

There are many types of interventions. The one you select should be based on several considerations. These questions may help guide you:

• What behaviour do I want to change? Some interventions are not suitable for certain types of behaviours.
• How do I want to change the behaviour? In other words, do I want to increase, decrease, maintain, or change the situation in which the behaviour occurs. This decision comes from the classification of the behaviour.
• Will using punishment produce any side effects?
• Will the behavioural intervention maintain the change in the behaviour in the long term?

If you need help in deciding the type of intervention to use, first classify your behaviour and then take a look at this flow chart (20k). The text that follows will help provide some additional information about the interventions mentioned in the flow chart. It is important, however, that you consult some of the references for complete details on the intervention you intend to use.

Contingency Management

• is the contingent presentation and withdrawal of rewards and punishers

(1) Contingency punishment

• involves the dispension, on a contingent basis, of negative or aversive consequences for a given behaviour

(2) Time out procedures

• refers to the contingent isolation or ignoring of an individual following an instance of inappropriate or problem behaviour
• combines effects of both punishment and extinction as it eliminates reinforcement for behaviour (extinction) and it puts individuals in an aversive environment
• but as it is a punishment is should always be used in conjunction with the procedures designed to build desirable behaviours

(3) Response cost

• refers to the contingent removal or withdrawal of a reinforcer following inappropriate or problem behaviour
• as with time out it may operate via extinction or by negative punishment
• often an integral part of contingency contracts where points can be given or taken away

(4) Differential reinforcement

• careful non-reinforcement of problem behaviours and clear reinforcement of target behaviours whenever they occur
• it is as much a technique to maximise the effectiveness of extinction as it is a goal in and of itself
• this method is often better because it provides a mechanism for positive reinforcement to eliminate maladaptive behaviours
• sometimes extinction will leave a behavioural vacuum such that some behaviour must occur in the time previously occupied by the undesirable behaviour so it makes sense to make this behaviour desirable by the use of reinforcement. It may need Some shaping to produce the desirable behaviour though
• also be providing reinforcement you may avoid the reinforcement vacuum that may bring an aversive state to the person as in time out
• differential reinforcement is most effective when there is a clear and desirable alternative behaviour which is incompatible with the undesirable one. In essences the desirable behaviour may then function to crowd out the undesirable behaviour

• refers to reflection upon positive scenes or recollections (covert positive reinforcement) or upon scenes that involve the termination of an imagined aversive event (covert negative reinforcement) contingent upon or following a target behaviour
• can be used for control of eating e.g. if want to eat a food such as a piece of cake one can then imagine oneself picking up the cake and just as they were to take a bite of it they would say "I don't want it" and then afterwards they would imagine a friend whom they would like to impress would then compliment them on their self control (+ve social reinforcement)
• some investigators doubt the use of this method as a true contingency management program that is based on instrumental conditioning and suggest that it may involve counter-conditioning

Contingencies Contracting

• a procedure of contingency management in which the contingencies are clearly spelled out in advance and individuals make formal agreements about the elements to be in effect
• frequent applications include marital problems, study problems, problems of self-control such as weight control and the personal scheduling of work and play
• in and of itself, contingency contracting implies little more than a clear specification of target behaviours and the reinforcers that will be made contingent upon them, but different contracts will differ greatly for different problem behaviours and even different individuals
• punishments or extinction for undesirable behaviour may also be included in the contract
• in a personal contingency contract, a system may be established that resembles a private application of "Grandma ' s Rule" that is specific behaviours must be accomplished before others are engaged in (e.g. study for one hour before calling friend on phone).
• When circumstances make it difficult for a one-to-one correspondence between desired behaviours and reinforcers, a personal token system may be worked out. In this system points are assigned to desired behaviours depending on their level of attractiveness and then reinforcements are purchased with more attractive items costing more. Thus it involves the defining of: desired behaviour, providing operational definitions for them and then assigning their point value
• in any contract, ail target behaviours as well as the reinforcers and punishers need to be well spelled out in advance. So define what you mean by a specific behaviour or reinforcer e.g. in terms of frequency duration, or intensity.
• another type of contract is a deposit contingency in which individuals agree to commit money or valuables as a condition for desirable behaviours. The money and valuables are lost in specific amounts for failing to produce the desired behaviours or by producing undesirable behaviours
• considerations for any contract involves the designation of problem behaviours, the identification of effective reinforcers the establishment of priorities of behaviour change and the agreement that the contract will implement the change

• common for eliminating small motor behaviours such as tics without the prominent establishment of some observable alternative response.

• Leiberman provides a short description of these two ways to modify a behaviour.

An important factor in any intervention program is how you will maintain the desirable behaviour in the long-term.

Please read the Copyright information.
February, 1998

e-mail: ottmar@psy.uq.edu.au
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